Wine
Wine is the alcoholic beverage obtained from the fermentation of the juice of freshly gathered grapes. The fermentation takes place in the district of origin, according to local tradition and practice. Only a relatively small area of the world is ‘wine producing’. This is because the grape will only provide juice of the quality necessary for conversion into a drinkable wine where two climatic conditions prevail: There must be enough sun to ripen the grape and the winter must be moderate, yet sufficiently cool to give the vine a chance to rest and restore its strength for the growing and fruiting season
Winemaking, or Vinification, is the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes to the bottling of finished wine. Wine production can be generally classified into two categories: Still wine production and sparkling wine production.
After the harvest, the grapes are crushed and allowed to ferment. Red wine is made from the must (pulp) of red or black grapes that undergo fermentation together with the grape skins, while white wine is usually made by fermenting juice pressed from white grapes, but can also be made from must extracted from red grapes with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color, but little of the tannins contained in the skins.
During this primary fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol). After the primary fermentation, the liquid is transferred to vessels for the secondary fermentation. Here, the remaining sugars are slowly converted into alcohol and the wine becomes clear. Some wine is then allowed to age in oak barrels before bottling, which add extra aromas to the wine, while others are bottled directly. The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for top wines.
Factors that influence the quality of wine are:
1 Climate and microclimate
2 Nature of the soil and subsoil
3 Vine family and grape species
4 Method of cultivation — viticulture
5 Chemical composition of the grape
6 Yeast and fermentation
7 Methods of wine making — vinification
8 Luck of the year
9 Ageing and maturing process
10 Method of shipping or transportation
11 Storage temperature
2 Wine Producing regions
1 France - There are seven primary wine-producing regions in France. Alsace, Bordeaux, Burgundy, Loire, Provence and the Rhone Valley comprise the dominant French wine regions. These regions are known for particular grape varietals as dictated by the district's indigenous terrors.
2 Argentina - For years considered being the 'sleeping giant' of the Southern Hemisphere, Argentina is now very much awake with exports to world markets increasing by over 50% in the last two years. Total annual wine output is the equivalent of Chile, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand combined.
3 Austria - Primarily a white wine producer, Austria has moved well to distance it from past scandals and now operates one of the strictest quality control regimes in the world. The fresh, fruity varietal wines and notably, the late harvest wines are regular winners at international wine fairs and provide excellent value for money.
4 Australia - In terms of quality and marketing prowess it has made a huge impact on world markets and caused many 'Old World' producers to sit up and take note. Australia produces consistently good varietal wines.
5 Chile - Renowned world-wide for its excellent, upfront varietal wines from the 'classic' grape varieties, Chile now exports 50% of its production to world markets. One of the few countries not to be ravaged by phylloxeria, Chile has capitalized on its unique location and micro-climates, with the cool air from the Andes tempering the hot sunshine and creating the ideal growing conditions for grapes.
6 Germany - Still waiting to be discovered, Germany has so much more to offer than 'Liebfraumilch'. Here the Riesling grape gives of its best to produce wines of sublime concentration, elegance and finish. Developments continue with dryer styles of wine (trocken) and labeling is becoming distinctly more user-friendly.
7 Hungary - Hungary is just becoming a modern wine producing country with substantial new investment in its wineries, winemaking techniques and vineyard management. Some excellent varietal wines are emerging.
8 New Zealand - The cooler climate and maritime influences of New Zealand make it an ideal location for fine white wines as can be witnessed in its Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay varietals. Although still a small producer, New Zealand's wine exports continue to grow and sales to Europe last year rose by over 50%.
9 Spain - The wines of Rioja and Jerez (Sherry) have always been famous, but Spain has now emerged as a country with a diverse and interesting range of quality wines from its many diverse and individual regions. Areas like Penedes, Navarra, Rueda and Valdepenas are vying with the famous Rioja wines for supremacy. Value allied to quality, style and character are the hallmarks of Spanish wines.
10 United States - The heart of U.S.A. wine production is in California, accounting for over 90% of total output. U.S.A. wine exports have more than doubled in the last two years with a strong emphasis on quality and varietal characteristics, like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay working alongside the revamped and much improved Zinfandel.
11 South Africa - Boasting a near perfect climate and ripening conditions, South Africa has emerged as a major player on the world stage. The recent privatization of the KWV co-operative and the emergence of single estate wines have done much to boost the image and quality of South African wines, no more so than with its specialty wine, Pinotage.
12 Portugal - A country which prides itself in its indigenous grape varieties, Portugal has been slow to adopt the major European classics such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay etc. As a result we see wines with regional character and individuality and that certain rustic charm. Portugal is also home to the world's most renowned sweet fortified wine - Port... more details
13 Italy - The world's largest wine producing country, Italy creates a myriad of wine styles from light sweet sparklers to big robust chewy reds with some stunning dessert and fortified styles in between. It is home to Chianti, Barolo and Vapolicella to name but a few.
3 Vinification
The process central to vinification is fermentation — the conversion of sugar to alcohol. This process is necessary to the making of all alcoholic beverages — not only to still, sparking and fortified wines, but also to spirits, liqueurs and beers (although some variations and further processes will be applied for individual beverages).
The grape
The grape itself may be broken into a number of elements:
1 skin — tannins and color
2 stalk — tannins
3 pips — bitter oils
4 pulp — sugar, fruit acids, water, pectins
The color in wine comes from the skin of the grape, being extracted during the fermentation process. Red wine can only be made from red grapes, but white wine can be made from white or red grapes, provided that, in the latter case, the grape skins are removed before fermentation begins. The yeast required for the fermentation process is found on the outside of the grape skin in the form of a whitish bloom.
Vine species
The vine species grown that produces grapes suitable for wine production and that stocks the vineyards of the world is named Vitis vinjfèra. All varieties now planted in
Europe has evolved from this species through cross-breeding, to suit local soils and climates. The same vine variety, grown in different regions and processed in different ways, will produce wines of differing characteristics. A few examples are:
Black
Cabernet Sauvignon
Pinot Noir
Gamay
Sangoivese
Grenache
Syrah/Shiraz
Zinfandel
Merlot
Note: the same vine variety in different regions can be, and often is, given a different name, e.g. Grenache of the Rhône as Garnacha producing fine Spanish wines.
White
Sémillon
Sauvignon blanc
Chardonnay
Riesling and Sylvaner
Palomino
4 Classification of wine types
Wine is the alcoholic beverage obtained from the fermentation of the juice of freshly gathered grapes. The fermentation takes place in the district of origin, according to local tradition and practice. Only a relatively small area of the world is ‘wine producing’. This is because the grape will only provide juice of the quality necessary for conversion into a drinkable wine where two climatic conditions prevail: There must be enough sun to ripen the grape and the winter must be moderate, yet sufficiently cool to give the vine a chance to rest and restore its strength for the growing and fruiting season
Winemaking, or Vinification, is the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes to the bottling of finished wine. Wine production can be generally classified into two categories: Still wine production and sparkling wine production.
After the harvest, the grapes are crushed and allowed to ferment. Red wine is made from the must (pulp) of red or black grapes that undergo fermentation together with the grape skins, while white wine is usually made by fermenting juice pressed from white grapes, but can also be made from must extracted from red grapes with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color, but little of the tannins contained in the skins.
During this primary fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol). After the primary fermentation, the liquid is transferred to vessels for the secondary fermentation. Here, the remaining sugars are slowly converted into alcohol and the wine becomes clear. Some wine is then allowed to age in oak barrels before bottling, which add extra aromas to the wine, while others are bottled directly. The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for top wines.
Factors that influence the quality of wine are:
1 Climate and microclimate
2 Nature of the soil and subsoil
3 Vine family and grape species
4 Method of cultivation — viticulture
5 Chemical composition of the grape
6 Yeast and fermentation
7 Methods of wine making — vinification
8 Luck of the year
9 Ageing and maturing process
10 Method of shipping or transportation
11 Storage temperature
2 Wine Producing regions
1 France - There are seven primary wine-producing regions in France. Alsace, Bordeaux, Burgundy, Loire, Provence and the Rhone Valley comprise the dominant French wine regions. These regions are known for particular grape varietals as dictated by the district's indigenous terrors.
2 Argentina - For years considered being the 'sleeping giant' of the Southern Hemisphere, Argentina is now very much awake with exports to world markets increasing by over 50% in the last two years. Total annual wine output is the equivalent of Chile, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand combined.
3 Austria - Primarily a white wine producer, Austria has moved well to distance it from past scandals and now operates one of the strictest quality control regimes in the world. The fresh, fruity varietal wines and notably, the late harvest wines are regular winners at international wine fairs and provide excellent value for money.
4 Australia - In terms of quality and marketing prowess it has made a huge impact on world markets and caused many 'Old World' producers to sit up and take note. Australia produces consistently good varietal wines.
5 Chile - Renowned world-wide for its excellent, upfront varietal wines from the 'classic' grape varieties, Chile now exports 50% of its production to world markets. One of the few countries not to be ravaged by phylloxeria, Chile has capitalized on its unique location and micro-climates, with the cool air from the Andes tempering the hot sunshine and creating the ideal growing conditions for grapes.
6 Germany - Still waiting to be discovered, Germany has so much more to offer than 'Liebfraumilch'. Here the Riesling grape gives of its best to produce wines of sublime concentration, elegance and finish. Developments continue with dryer styles of wine (trocken) and labeling is becoming distinctly more user-friendly.
7 Hungary - Hungary is just becoming a modern wine producing country with substantial new investment in its wineries, winemaking techniques and vineyard management. Some excellent varietal wines are emerging.
8 New Zealand - The cooler climate and maritime influences of New Zealand make it an ideal location for fine white wines as can be witnessed in its Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay varietals. Although still a small producer, New Zealand's wine exports continue to grow and sales to Europe last year rose by over 50%.
9 Spain - The wines of Rioja and Jerez (Sherry) have always been famous, but Spain has now emerged as a country with a diverse and interesting range of quality wines from its many diverse and individual regions. Areas like Penedes, Navarra, Rueda and Valdepenas are vying with the famous Rioja wines for supremacy. Value allied to quality, style and character are the hallmarks of Spanish wines.
10 United States - The heart of U.S.A. wine production is in California, accounting for over 90% of total output. U.S.A. wine exports have more than doubled in the last two years with a strong emphasis on quality and varietal characteristics, like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay working alongside the revamped and much improved Zinfandel.
11 South Africa - Boasting a near perfect climate and ripening conditions, South Africa has emerged as a major player on the world stage. The recent privatization of the KWV co-operative and the emergence of single estate wines have done much to boost the image and quality of South African wines, no more so than with its specialty wine, Pinotage.
12 Portugal - A country which prides itself in its indigenous grape varieties, Portugal has been slow to adopt the major European classics such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay etc. As a result we see wines with regional character and individuality and that certain rustic charm. Portugal is also home to the world's most renowned sweet fortified wine - Port... more details
13 Italy - The world's largest wine producing country, Italy creates a myriad of wine styles from light sweet sparklers to big robust chewy reds with some stunning dessert and fortified styles in between. It is home to Chianti, Barolo and Vapolicella to name but a few.
3 Vinification
The process central to vinification is fermentation — the conversion of sugar to alcohol. This process is necessary to the making of all alcoholic beverages — not only to still, sparking and fortified wines, but also to spirits, liqueurs and beers (although some variations and further processes will be applied for individual beverages).
The grape
The grape itself may be broken into a number of elements:
1 skin — tannins and color
2 stalk — tannins
3 pips — bitter oils
4 pulp — sugar, fruit acids, water, pectins
The color in wine comes from the skin of the grape, being extracted during the fermentation process. Red wine can only be made from red grapes, but white wine can be made from white or red grapes, provided that, in the latter case, the grape skins are removed before fermentation begins. The yeast required for the fermentation process is found on the outside of the grape skin in the form of a whitish bloom.
Vine species
The vine species grown that produces grapes suitable for wine production and that stocks the vineyards of the world is named Vitis vinjfèra. All varieties now planted in
Europe has evolved from this species through cross-breeding, to suit local soils and climates. The same vine variety, grown in different regions and processed in different ways, will produce wines of differing characteristics. A few examples are:
Black
Cabernet Sauvignon
Pinot Noir
Gamay
Sangoivese
Grenache
Syrah/Shiraz
Zinfandel
Merlot
Note: the same vine variety in different regions can be, and often is, given a different name, e.g. Grenache of the Rhône as Garnacha producing fine Spanish wines.
White
Sémillon
Sauvignon blanc
Chardonnay
Riesling and Sylvaner
Palomino
4 Classification of wine types
Still wine
This is the largest category. The alcoholic strength may be between 9% and 15%, by volume. The wines may be:
1 Red: being fermented in contact with grape skins from which the wine gets
its color. Normally dry wines.
2 White: usually produced from white grapes, but the grape juice (must) is
usually fermented away from the skins. Normally dry to very sweet.
3 Rosé: made in three ways — from black grapes fermented on the skins for up to 48 hours; by mixing red and white wines together; or by pressing grapes so that some color is extracted. It may be dry or semi-sweet. These are called blush wines in the USA when made wholly from red grapes.
Sparkling wines
4 The most famous is Champagne. This is made by the méthode champenoise
(Secondary fermentation in the bottle) in an area of north-eastern France.
5 Effervescent wines made outside this area are called vins mousseux or sparkling wines and are made by either the methode champenoise (now called methode traditionelle), the Charmat method (tank fermented and sometimes termed the method cuve close), the transfer method, or the carbonation method.
6 Sparkling wines are available from France, Spain, Italy and many other countries.
7 They may vary from brut (very dry), sec (medium dry), demi-sec (medium sweet), to doux (sweet).
8 Semi-sparkling wines are known by the term petulant.
Organic wines
These wines, also known as ‘green’ or ‘environmentally friendly’ wines, are made from grapes grown without the aid of artificial insecticides, pesticides or fertilizers. The wine itself will not be adulterated in any way, save for minimal amounts of the traditional preservative, sulphur dioxide, which is controlled at source.
Alcohol-free, de-alcoholized and low alcohol wines
Alcohol free: maximum 0.05°/o alcohol
De-alcoholized: maximum 0.500/0 alcohol
Low alcohol: maximum 1.25°/o alcohol
These wines are made in the normal way and the alcohol is removed either by hot treatment — distillation — which unfortunately removes most of the flavor as well, or, more satisfactorily, by a cold filtration process, also known as reverse osmosis. This removes the alcohol by mechanically separating or filtering out the molecules of alcohol through membranes made of cellulose or acetate. To this, at a later stage, water and a little must are added, thus attempting to preserve much of the flavor of the original wine.
Vins doux naturals
These are sweet wines that have had their fermentation muted by the addition of alcohol in order to retain their natural sweetness. Muting takes place when the alcohol level reaches between 5% and 8% by volume. They have final alcohol strength of about 17% by volume.
Fortified wine
Fortified wines such as Sherry, Port and Madeira have been strengthened by the addition of alcohol, usually a grape spirit.
These are now known within the EU as liqueur wines or vins de liqueur. Their alcoholic strength may be between 15% and 22%, by volume.
1 Sherry (from Spain) 15—18% — fino (dry), amontillado (medium), oloroso (sweet)
2 Port (from Portugal) 18—22% — ruby, tawny, vintage character, late bottled vintage, vintage
3 Madeira 18% (made on the Portuguese island of Madeira) — Sercial (dry),
Verdelho (medium), Bual (sweet), Malmsey (very sweet)
1 Marsala 180/0 — a dark sweet wine from Marsala in Sicily
Another example is muscat and muscatel, made from the Muscat grape. Most are sweet and raisin-like with a strong bouquet. One of the best known is Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, named after a village in the Côtes du Rhône where it is made. The wine is fortified with spirit before fermentation is complete so that some of the natural sugar remains in the wine. It is drunk young.
Aromatized wine
These are flavored and fortified wines.
2 Vermouth - The four main types of vermouth are:
· Dry vermouth: often called French vermouth or simply French. It is made from dry white wine that is flavored and fortified.
· Sweet vermouth/bianco: made from dry white wine, flavored, fortified and sweetened with sugar or mistelle.
· Rosé vermouth: made in a similar way to Bianco but it is less sweet and is colored with caramel.
· o Red vermouth: often called Italian vermouth, Italian or more often It (as in Gin and It). It is made from white wine and is flavored, sweetened and colored with a generous addition of caramel.
3 Chamberyzette - Made in the Savoy Alps of France. It is flavored with the juice of wild strawberries.
4 Punt-e-mes - From Carpano of Turin; this is heavily flavored with quinine and has wild contrasts of bitterness and sweetness.
5 Dubonnet - Dubonnet is available in two varieties: blonde (white) and rouge (red) and is flavored with quinine and herbs.
6 St Raphael - Red or white, bitter-sweet drink from France flavored with herbs and quinine.
7 Li llet - Popular French aperitif made from white Bordeaux wine and flavored with herbs, fruit peel and fortified with Armagnac brandy. It is aged in oak casks.
8 Pineau de Charente - Although not strictly an aromatized or fortified wine, Pineau de Charente has gained popularity as an alternative aperitif or digestif. It is available in white, rosé or red and is made with grape must from the Cognac region and fortified with young Cognac to about 17°/o alcohol by volume.
5 Reading a wine label
The label on a bottle of wine can give a lot of useful information about the wine. The language used will normally be that of the country of origin. The information always includes:
Within the European Union, regulations mandate that this information be provided on the label:
1 the type of wine (e.g. vin de pays, table wine, or AOC)
2 the name and address of the wine producer, bottler, or salesman
3 the country of origin
4 the wine's volume (e.g. 750 ml)
5 the percent alcohol by volume (if the ABV exceeds 1.2%), which can deviate at most 0.4% from the real grade
Additional information may be included at the discretion of the wine producer. This may include:
1 more specific information on the sweetness of wine (e.g. brut or demi-sec)
2 the vintage year
3 the grape variety
4 the Lage or detailed name of the vineyard
5 the wine region e.g. Rheinhessen
6 names of people involved in the wine's distribution (e.g. "Selected by..."/"Sélectionné par..." or "Imported by..."/"Importé par...")
7 medals or other prizes awarded to the wine
8 recommendations for use (e.g. "Serve chilled")
It is not necessary to indicate an expiration date on wine labels.
The European Community has strict regulations that govern what is printed on the bottle label. These regulations also apply to wine entering the EU. Still wines of the standard size bottled after 1988 when EU regulations on content came into force must contain 75 cl, though bottles from previous years, containing 70 cl for example, will still be on sale for some years to come. An example of the kind of information given on a label may be seen below.
6 Tasting wine
The sommelier, as well as having an extensive knowledge of the wine list, should have good knowledge of the characteristics of the different wines offered. To ensure this, he/she must know the correct approach to tasting wine.
Tasting may be said to be an analysis of wine by the senses. It is the appreciation by our senses of the qualities of a wine.
1 Sight: indicating the clarity and color of the wine
2 Smell: determines the bouquet of a wine by means of a vigorous swirling in the glass.
3 Taste: allows detection of the aroma in the mouth.
The taste-character of wine is detected in different parts of the mouth but especially by the tongue: sweetness at the tip, acidity on the upper edges, saltiness at the sides, bitterness the back. Dryness and sweetness are immediately obvious, as is acidity, which general provides liveliness and crispness. Astringency or tannin content, associated with some red wines, will give a dry coating effect especially on the teeth and gums.
The combination of smell and taste gives what is often termed ‘flavor’. This might be, for example, the amount of tannin content in the wine, its degree of dryness or sweetness, whether it is a light or heavy bodied wine, etc.
The tool of the taster is the glass. The wine taster’s glass must be the correct shape. A wine glass with a stem and of sufficient capacity should be chosen. The glass should be fairly wide but narrowing at the top. This allows the elements making up the bouquet to become concentrated and thus better assessed. The wine glass should never be filled to more than one-third capacity. This allows the taster to swirl the wine round the glass more easily. It goes without saying that the tasting glass should be spotlessly clean.
7 Faults in wine
Faults occasionally develop in wine as it matures in bottles. Nowadays, through improved techniques and attention to detail regarding bottling and storage, faulty wine is a rarity,
Here are the more common causes:
1 Corked wines - These are wines affected by a diseased cork caused through bacterial action or excessive bottle age. The wine tastes and smells foul. This is not to be confused with cork residue in wine which is harmless.
2 Maderization or oxidation - This is caused by bad storage — too much exposure to air, often because the cork has dried out in these conditions. The color of the wine browns or darkens and the taste very slightly resembles Madeira, hence the name. The wine tastes ‘spoilt’.
3 Acetification- This is caused when the wine is overexposed to air. The vinegar microbe develops a film on the surface of the wine and acetic acid is produced making the wine taste sour, resembling wine vinegar (vin vinaigre).
4 Tartare flake - This is the crystallization of potassium bitartrate. These crystal-like flakes, sometimes seen in white wine, may cause anxiety to some customers as they spoil the appearance of the wine which is otherwise perfect to drink. If the wine is stabilized before bottling, this condition should not occur.
5 Excess sulphur dioxide (502) - Sulphur dioxide is added to wine to preserve it and keep it healthy. Once the bottle is opened, the stink will disappear and, after a few minutes, the wine is perfectly drinkable.
6 Secondary fermentation - This happens when traces of sugar and yeast are left in the wine in bottle. It leaves the wine with an unpleasant, prickly taste that should not be confused with the petillant, spritzig characteristics associated with other styles of healthy and refreshing wines.
7 Foreign contamination - Examples include splintered or powdered glass caused by faulty bottling machinery or re-used bottles which previously held some kind of disinfectant.
8 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) - The wine smells and tastes of rotten eggs. Throw it away.
9 Sediment, lees, crust or dregs - This is organic matter discarded by the wine as it matures in cask or bottle. It can be removed by racking, fining or, in the case of bottled wine, by decanting.
10 Cloudiness - This is caused by suspended matter in the wine, disguising its true color. It may be due to extremes in storage temperatures.
8 Matching food and drinks
A few general pointers are set out below that may be followed when advising the customer which beverage to choose to accompany a meal. However, it must be stressed that customers should at all times be given complete freedom in their selection of wines.
1 Apéritifs are alcoholic beverages that are drunk before the meal. If wine will be consumed with the meal, then the aperitif selected should be a ‘grape’ (wine-based) rather than a ‘grain’ (spirit-based) aperitif, since the latter can spoil or dull the palate. The aperitif is usually a wine-based beverage. It is meant to stimulate the appetite and therefore should not be sweet. Dry and medium dry sherries, dry vermouths and Sercial or Verdeiho Madeira are all good examples of apéritifs.
2 The starter courses are best accompanied by a dry white or dry rosé wine.
3 National dishes should be complemented by the national wines of that country. Thus, for instance, Italian red wine should be served with pasta.
4 Fish and shellfish dishes are most suited to well-chilled dry white wines.
5 Red meats such as beef and lamb blend and harmonize well with red wine.
6 White meats such as veal and pork are acceptable with medium white wines.
7 Game dishes require the heavier and more robust red wines to complement the full flavor of these dishes.
8 Sweets and desserts are served at the end of the meal and here it is acceptable to offer well-chilled sweet white wines. These wines harmonize best with dishes containing fruit.
9 The majority of cheeses blend well with port and other dry robust red wines. Port is the traditional wine harmonizing best with Stilton cheese.
10 The grain- and fruit-based brandies and liqueurs all harmonize well with coffee.
A few general guidelines will ensure that the most appropriate wines are selected to accompany a meal:
1 Champagne or sparkling complement most foods
2 Consume red wine with red meat and white wine with white meat
3 If unsure, often a rosé will suffice
4 Consume white wine before red wine
5 Consume dry wine before sweet wine
6 Consume a ‘good’ wine before a ‘great ‘wine
7 Commence with a grape aperitif rather than a grain aperitif prior to the meal
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