1. INTRODUCTIONFood service operations range from food and beverage outlets that are operate in and out of hotels to those found in locations which are not primarily designed for the service of food and beverage.
1.2 RESTAURANTSThere are several criteria that may be used to classify restaurants, including :
nature of the operation (chain or independent);
type of management concepts (owner-operated, 'management contract);
use or absence of a theme; and
level of service provided (fine dining, coffee house, etc.).
The most common basis for classifying restaurants is the level of service they provide. Restaurants classified using this criterion include :
a. Fine dining restaurants
b. Brasseries
c. Coffee house
d. Quick service restaurants
1.2.1 FINE DINING RESTAURANTSFine dining establishments are full-service restaurants traditionally associated with five-star luxury hotels though such restaurants may also be operated independently. Excellence in all aspects of the operations of such outlets is a prerequisite because the prices charged are usually very high. In hotels, these restaurants act as 'showcases of excellence' - where the service, food and beverages offered are the very best that the hotel can offer.
Listed below are the characteristics found in most fine dining restaurants :
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Seating capacityThey are limited in capacity by the high level of service they provide. They usually seat no more than 100 guests.
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AtmosphereThese restaurants provide a comfortable atmosphere and elegant atmosphere. Such restaurants are often described as being romantic, classy and exclusive. The decor in these restaurants is usually elaborate with top-quality furniture, furnishings and may include expensive works of art and antiques.
Seating is kept relatively sparse and effort is made to provide customers with a greater sense of privacy than in most restaurants. In some fine-dining restaurants, private dining rooms may also be made available.
These private dining rooms are used to cater to larger groups of diners and help isolate the noise that these large groups of diners are likely to create as well as providing these groups with a greater sense of privacy.
In traditional fine dining restaurants, a dress code might also be enforced. Such dress codes usually require male diners to wear a tie and jacket. Such dress codes may apply to one or both meal periods but is more likely to be enforced more strictly for dinner rather than lunch.
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Operational hoursFine dining restaurants usually operate only two meal periods : lunch and dinner. However, some fine dining rooms might also operate for breakfast, specifically to cater to selected customers such as those staying on the hotel's Executive or Club Floor and suite rooms.
• Range of food and beverages offered
Fine dining restaurants cater to a very specific group of diners -food connoisseurs and gourmets. Thus, food items and delicacies such as foie gras, truffles, fresh oysters, caviar, veal sweetbreads are likely to be found on the menus of fine dining restaurants.
The menus in these restaurants feature a relatively small selection but are changed quite often when compared to other types of restaurants. Great care and effort is made to ensure that the menu items are presented and served in a visually stunning and pleasing manner.
Expensive, fine, rare wines and spirits from the top notch producers, shippers and vintages are also offered in these restaurants.
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Target marketThe clientele in fine dining restaurants are mostly made up of business men and women who work or entertain over lunch while dinner is more likely to draw food connoisseurs and gourmets.
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Staff and serviceService staffs working in fine dining restaurants are highly skilled in restaurant craft. They are knowledgeable, experienced individuals who pay a great deal of attention to details in every aspect of their work. Customer can expect efficient, attentive, personalised and yet unobtrusive service. Service staffs in such restaurants have learnt the art of anticipating the needs of customers, e.g. water and bread is offered and replenished without customers having to ask for it.
In addition, specialised positions may exist in these restaurants. Sommeliers are usually only found in fine-dining restaurants and are on-hand to advise diners on their choice of wines and beverages.
The chefs who work in these restaurants are highly skilled, creative and innovative as they must provide diners with an ever-changing fare on the restaurant's menus.
Staff in these restaurants work on split-shift rosters. Though they may be financially compensated for the inconvenience and long hours associated with such shifts, it is usually a strong sense of commitment that sees them through.
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Service equipmentThe equipment used in such restaurants is usually high quality and expensive. Cutlery is often silver or silver-plated, glassware may be crystal and chinaware may be fine bone china. The linen used in these restaurants are usually pure linen or a linen-cotton mixture rather than the cheaper cotton-polyester variety.
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Entertainment conceptThe music in such restaurants tends to be classical or semi-classical in nature and is played over a sound system or presented as live entertainment in the form of a pianist, harpist, flautist, a strolling violinist, etc.
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Pricing The average food and beverage check is these restaurants are high.
Casual upscale diningFine-dining restaurants are in a general decline in recent times. Customers now favour casual, upscale restaurants which offer popular foods in a setting that is more appealing than most midscale restaurants while offering better value than fine-dining restaurants. An example of a causal upscale dining establishment is Morton's of Chicago which is an upmarket steak house.
1.2.2 BRASSERIES`Brasseries' are a French term and originally referred to restaurants which served beer, as opposed to fine-dining restaurants which did not. The term has, however, become one used to refer to any restaurant providing a level of service that is higher than a coffee house but below that provided by a fine dining restaurant.
Listed below are the characteristics found in most brasseries:
• Seating capacityThese restaurants range widely in seating capacity, from smaller versions seating less than a hundred to larger restaurants seating as many as 450.
• AtmosphereBrasseries are designed to be more functional than a fine dining restaurant. They are geared for quick turnovers and are noisy with relatively dense seating and are generally less formal than a fine dining establishment.
• Operational hoursIn most places, most brasseries operate only during lunch and dinner only. They may also be opened for breakfast for customers staying in the suite rooms or Executive Floors in hotels. In Paris, some brasseries open for breakfast and close late, often after 11.00 p.m.
• Range of food and beverages offeredThe menus in brasseries usually have a larger selection than fine dining restaurants but are also revised less frequently. French brasseries traditionally serve regional specialities like French Onion Soup, bouillabaisse, Quiche Lorraine, Coq au yin or boeuf bourguignonne. However, modern brasseries may serve Asian, American or other European cuisines.
A comprehensive range of wines may be offered in brasseries though the range is likely to be less extensive than fine dining restaurants.
• Target marketThe clientele in brasseries are mostly made up of business people who may work or entertain over while dinner is more likely to draw diners who are out for an evening of entertainment and fun rather than a culinary experience.
• Staff and serviceService staffs in brasseries are fairly skilled and knowledgeable, though the selection criteria for staff may be less stringent than fine dining restaurants.
The staff in these restaurants is likely to work on a split shift or a 2-shift roster. Fast and efficient service is provided despite a lower staff to customer ratio when compared to fine dining restaurants. The combination of this and a higher table turnover results in a level of service that is lower when compared with a fine dining restaurant.
• Service equipmentThe functional atmosphere of traditional brasseries is reflected in the equipment used in the restaurant. Stainless-steel cutlery and glassware are used rather than silverware and crystal. The chinaware in these restaurants may be ceramic or stoneware but seldom fine china. Linen is usually a polyester-cotton mix rather than the more expensive linen-cotton or pure linen.
• Entertainment conceptThe entertainment format usually reflective of the adopted theme of the restaurant. Traditional French-Parisian brasseries might present French accordion music while modern brasseries may play pop music over the sound system.
• PricingThe average food and beverage check in brasseries ranges widely but is generally lower than fine dining restaurants.
Brasserie or not ?
Some restaurants might include the term 'brasserie' in their names but most do not fit the characteristics stated here as the level of the service provided is more typical of coffee houses.
1.2.3 COFFEE HOUSES
Coffee houses are also known by many other names:
• cafés
• bistros
• all day dining rooms
• family restaurants
• popularly-priced restaurants
These restaurants that provide a level of service that is less attentive than that expected in a brasserie or fine dining establishment. Some of the characteristics of such restaurants are:
• Seating capacity
These restaurants range widely in capacity, with smaller restaurants seating slightly less than a hundred customers while larger restaurants can seat as many as 500.
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AtmosphereThe original cafés were basically small informal places which served coffee and originated in Paris, France.
Coffee houses are functional but comfortable and are designed Lo feeding large numbers of people quickly. Coffee houses become very crowded and noisy but that is it's very nature.
Coffee houses are geared for quick turnovers and seating is often very dense with tables close to each other, offering little in terms of privacy.
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Operational hoursThese restaurants are likely to operate 24-hours though some restaurants are closed during specified, off-peak periods (e.g. 2.00 a.m. to 6.00 am) - when the volume of business makes it uneconomical or unnecessary to stay open.
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Range of food and beverages offeredCoffee houses offer food a range of food that is often described as being `international' in nature. Thus, the menus feature anything from a grilled T-bone steak to Mexican fqjitas, Italian pasta, Thai Tom Y 14M, Indonesian Nasi Goreng and local hawker fare like Hokkien Prawns Noodles or Satay.
Menus and beverage lists in coffee houses offer a large selection but these are changed less frequently (a once a year change is not unusual). Different menus may also be used for each meal period the restaurant operates.
Coffee houses in hotels are often the only restaurants open for breakfast and usually offer breakfast buffets in addition to an a la carte menu. Buffets might also be offered for other meal periods such as lunch, high-tea, dinner and supper.
Alcoholic beverages are offered in coffee houses but the only alcoholic beverage that is significant in terms of sales is beer. The sale of wines and spirits is usually negligible and the range offered is seldom extensive.
• Target marketThe clientele in coffee houses are mainly made up of in-house customers at breakfast while lunch attracts office workers. Dinner is more likely to draw larger groups such as families while supper attracts late-night diners who come in after going to night spots and clubs. These outlets are also likely to attract family groups, especially if they offer buffet brunch or tea on weekends.
• Staff and serviceService staff in coffee houses need to work fast and they skills lie in maximising efficiency as they often work with a very low staff to customer ratio. Though generally less skilled than service staff in fine dining restaurants and brasseries, service staff in ,offee houses are able to work fast and handle large volumes of customers at one seating. Their fast and efficient style of service may often be viewed as being impersonal in nature. Working on a 3-shift roster, staffing in coffee houses is also very likely to be supplemented with part time staff.
• Service equipmentThe functional nature of coffee houses is reflected in the choice of equipment used in the restaurant. Stainless steel is often used for cutlery while chinaware is often hard wearing, rolled-edged chinaware. Glassware is functional and durable in design while linen is seldom used. Instead paper napkins are offered while table mat are made of paper or laminated in plastic. If linen tablecloth and napkin are used, they are often made of a polyester-cotton textile.
• Entertainment conceptPiped-in instrumental music or a juke box is the usual form of entertainment in a coffee house though some rare exceptions feature live music.
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PricingCoffee houses have relatively low average food and beverage checks when compared to brasseries
1.2.4 QUICK SERVICE RESTAURANTSPre-teens, teenagers, students and families with young children are the main target of these restaurants which provide food in a casual atmosphere and are relatively inexpensive. These food and beverage operations offer a limited menu selection as speed is an important consideration.
Most of these operations offer over-the-counter service and customers must bring food from individual counters to the dining tables. Quick service restaurants include:
• cafeterias
• delicatessens
• fast-food outlets
• snack bars
• CafeteriasAlso known locally as food courts, these food service operations offer a variety of food and beverage served over-the-counter at a series of counters operated either by different business entities or a single operator in a common location. Diners may take-away the food and beverage items but may also dine on site. Seating is provided at common tables (those which may be used by anyone patronising the food court).
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DelicatessensDelicatessens originated from the Jewish community of America and are basically take-away counters where cold cuts, sausages, salads, cheeses, pastries and freshly baked breads were sold. Later, these 'delis' started to cater to their customer's different tastes by making these sandwiches and salads to order. They may also offer limited seating for diners who prefer to consume the food and drinks on premise.
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Fast-food outletsCustomers at fast-food outlets place their food and drink orders with the server-cum-cashier at the counter. The food is wrapped in disposable grease proof paper or Styrofoam boxes. Once the order is assembled by the counter staff, customers either carry the food on trays to the table to eat or away-away the order.
Seating is provided and is usually dense with tables and fixed swivel chairs allowing the seating capacity to be fully maximised. As most of these outlets cater to families, children’s play area or room and facilities such as baby chairs are usually made available. Waste bins are also located throughout the outlet to allow customers to dispose of leftover food and disposable packaging.
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Snack barsSnack bars are small eateries that operate in hotels, shopping centres or as free-standing kiosks. These outlets cater to busy office workers on a short lunch break and to hungry shoppers looking for a quick, inexpensive meal. Service is fast and often impersonal - due to the low staff to customer ratio and a relatively high turnover. Service is usually over-the-counter or plated service and take-away counters are common. Staff must be well-trained to handle properly and food sanitation and hygiene is very important as the food is pre-cooked.
1.3 THEME RESTAURANTSRestaurants may also be classified by the use or absence of a theme. Themes are varied and can be based on almost anything. Theme restaurants are often elaborately decorated in a motif that is easily identifiable. These restaurants are also likely to carry the theme through to the menu, service style, uniforms and the ambience.
Commonly used themes are :
Comic characters Ethnic restaurants
• Food themes
• Lifestyle
• Movie genres
• Period themes
• Personality
Sports e.g. Garfield, Snoopy, Marvel Mania
e.g. Cha Cha Cha, Bice, Lei Garden, Sanur
e.g. Imperial Herbal Restaurant, Lingzhi Vegetarian Restaurant
e.g. Planet Hollywood
e.g. Jekyli & Hyde Club
e.g. Billy Bombers, Hard Rock Café
e.g. Kenny Roger's Roasters, Robert De Niro' s Tribeca, Steven Spielberg's Dive !
e.g. Official All Star Sports Café and Sportopia
What are non-theme restaurants?
These are restaurants without an identifiable theme. Restaurants like Jack's Place, Denny's Restaurants as well as most hotel-based coffee houses tend to be non-theme restaurants.
1.4 TYPES OF BAR SET-UPSThere are two basic types of 15 bar set-ups:
• display bars
• service bars
A display bar is one that is located in a beverage outlet. These bars are likely to serve customers directly and provide seating at the bar counter.
A service bar is also known as a dispense bar. These bars do not serve customers directly and dispense drinks to service staff who in turn serve the drinks to customers. They are therefore basic and functional in design and provide no seats at the bar counter. These bars are likely to be located in the back-of-the-house but are also found in banquet function rooms, Chinese restaurants and coffee houses.
Types of bar counters
There are two basic types of bar counters:
Island bar counter Traditional bar counters Legend:
Door flaps that allows bartenders to move in and out from behind he bar counter
Storage areas with locks
Island bar counters are those that are located in the middle of the beverage outlet. As such, they are able to serve drinks from all sides of the counter and are commonly the main feature in the outlet.
Traditional bar counters are those located against a wall in the beverage outlet. These bar counters occupy less space but are also less visually prominent than Island bar counters
1.5 TYPES OF BEVERAGE OUTLETS There are several types of beverage outlets :
• Cocktail bars
• Pubs
• Lounges
• Discotheques Night-clubs
• Pool-side bars Micro-breweries
• Wine bars
• Gourmet coffee bars and tea houses
Traditionally, these beverage outlets had specific characteristics which could be used to identify them. However, in recent times, beverage outlets have undergone great changes, often becoming 'multi-concept' outlets, thus making a clear classification of these outlets increasingly difficult.
1.5.1 Cocktail bars
The passage of the Volstead Act, the Eighteen Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America, had prohibited the manufacture, sales and distribution of alcoholic beverages. It began that era in American history known commonly as the Prohibition (1920 -1933). During these times, a new type of bar was spawned - the 'speakeasy' These places were often operated by criminals who sold 'bootleg' liquor - spirits illegally produced or smuggled into the country .
The spirits sold then were often of very poor quality. By sweetening and flavouring the spirits with strongly flavoured liqueurs and fruit juices, the operators of these illegal establishments sought to disguise the poor quality of their products. Such drinks eventually became popularly known as cocktails. Many of the classic cocktails of today like the Manhattan, Rob Roy and Dry Martini cocktail were invented in those times.
Cocktail bars :
serve a wide range of spirits and feature a wide variety of cocktails. also serve a limited range of beers and wines.
provide tray or counter service.
have relatively large bar counters designed for volume and often use the bar counter as their main decorative feature.
provide entertainment which varies from background music to live performances.
have comparatively little seating at the bar counter and may provide small side counters near the walls for patrons to place their drinks.
1.5.2 PubsThe word 'pub' originates from the term 'public house' and is a bar concept from the United Kingdom. Also known as taverns, pubs were originally small bars located in villages and small towns where the locals gathered at the end of the day to socialise over drinks.
Pubs :
have limited seating away at the bar counter.
provide seating with furniture that is often rustic and basic (wooden tables, benches or chairs).
are usually small in size are thus provide a cosy, intimate atmosphere, often with wood panelling on the walls.
also often serve food, termed 'pub grub', such as sausages with mash potato -known by the English as bangers and mash.
feature tray and counter service.
requires a relatively small number of staff to carry out service.
offer a wide range of beers, ales and stouts while Irish whiskey, Scotch whisky and gins were the main spirits on sale.
traditionally did not provide entertainment aside from indoor games like darts, chess sets and draughts.
Modern pubs are larger, noisier and best described as 'fun pubs'. These are likely to feature entertainment as such live bands, small dance floors and have more in common with Cocktail bars than the original pub concept.
Irish pubs are a variation of the pub which have become popular in Asia. These pubs feature a more traditional pub atmosphere and are likely to offer a wide variety of beers and stouts on tap.
1.5.3 LoungesLounges also originate from the United Kingdom and were originally upscale pubs found in cities. They featured a more comfortable setting such as padded booth seats and large leather chairs. However, the drinks were priced slightly higher than those sold in pubs in the countryside.
Lounges :
• are larger, more elaborately decorated than pubs.
• practice tray and counter service.
• requires a relatively higher staff to customer ratio than pubs.
• feature cocktails as well as spirits, wines and beers.
These days, the term lounge brings to mind beverage outlets found in hotel lobbies - and many Singaporeans prefer these outlets as they are a quiet venue where one is able to hold a conversation.
Modern lounges in Singapore :
• are larger in capacity than the traditional lounge.
• have fairly comfortable seating - sofas seats with low coffee tables.
• include karaoke lounges which feature facilities that play recorded music on laser discs that allow patrons to sing along with displayed lyrics.
• have private rooms for groups - with their own private karaoke facilities.
• may also feature live performances and a small dance floor.
1.5.4 Discotheques and clubsDiscotheque is a French word that refers to a place that plays recorded music from a record or disc. Also known as discos, these beverage outlets were widely popular in the 1970's and early 1980's. In recent times, the term 'club' has been used to refer to similar beverage outlets.
Discotheques and clubs: feature music from pre-recorded sources
provide dance music from expensive high-tech sound systems with elaborate effects such as lasers, strobe lights and smoke machines.
have large dance floors which are the main feature of the outlet.
have functional dispense bars with against the wall bar counters with little or no seating provided at the bar counter.
may be designed with more than one bar counter, especially in larger establishments.
serve beverages using tray, counter service and bottle sales service. cover charges may be levied and membership concepts may apply.
may also provide Velvet service to customers who are entitled to be seated in `member's section of the outlet.
requires a relatively large number of staff to take and serve drink orders.
live entertainment such as bands may be provided in between period where recorded music is not being played.
bottle sales are more likely to take place as it often results in easier entry to the outlet (especially if the disco is a popular one and long queues exist at the entrance).
1.5.5 Night-clubsNight-clubs originate from the London of the 1920's and 30's. Gambling in public is illegal in the United Kingdom but is allowed in private. Since entry to a club is restricted to members only, criminals who were keen to get into the gambling scene legally began to open such clubs. However, since their clientele were only likely to patronise these clubs at night, they became known as 'night-clubs'.
In the Asian context, night-clubs are also known in the trade as 'Latin bars' and are regarded as being fairly sleazy. These outlets often provide These bars usually also feature booth seating to provide greater privacy.
Night-clubs typically:• have functional dispense bars with against the wall bar counters.
• are likely to have bottle sales as their customers tend to come in larger groups.
• may apply a higher age limit than other beverage outlets as entertainment provided maybe of an adult nature, e.g. topless performances.
• have a higher staff to customer ratio than most other beverage outlets.
• serve drinks using Velvet service and bottle sales service.
• have decor that is often elaborate such velvet upholstery, chandeliers, etc.
• provide private rooms with karaoke facilities.
• may feature female companionship in the form of 'hostesses' for a hourly fee.
• also engage 'mama-sans' who oversee the activities of the hostesses.
• a small dance floor with a stage featuring live music or other cabaret performance.
1.5.6 Pool-side barsThese bars are located in ‘open-air’ areas, near or in swimming pools. For example, those with ‘sunken bars’ may be located in the swimming pool to allow bridge or gangway over the water in the pool allows the assess to the bar in the pool.
Pool-side bars :• cater to customers seated around or having a swim in the pool.
• serve drinks using tray and counter service.
• use plastic 'glassware' for safety reasons.
• offer a wide range of exotic tropical cocktails and long drinks.
• may also serve snacks if the bar counter is not part of a sunken bar.
• may feature entertainment in the form of pre-recorded music or live entertainment.
• with sunken bars usually have seats at the bar which are made up of fixed mosaic-covered concrete stools in the water along the bar counter.
1.5.7 Micro-breweriesMicro-breweries produce beers on site in the outlet. Thus; these outlets often occupy a substantial area, often over two or more floors. Beer is brewed and matured in tanks on the upper floors of the cutlet. When ready, the beer is fed through a pipe using gravity to a lower tank where it is held and drained for sale and consumption.
Micro-breweries:
offer a small but exclusive ramie of speciality beers which are brewed, matured and sold on site in the outlet itself.
require large floor areas to accommodate the brewing equipment.
these outlets may also offer dining facilities.
1.5.8 Wine bars
Wine bars originate from Paris where these beverage outlets are referred to as
`vinotheques' .
Wine bars :
• offer little or no entertainment other than background music.
• feature a wide range of wines, many of which are available by the glass.
• may use specialised wine dispensing systems to prevent spoilage of open bottles.
• usually offer finger foods such as cold cuts, hot snacks but may also have more elaborate dining facilities.
• may feature wine buffets where an unlimited amount of wines and snacks are served for a fixed price.
1.5.9 Gourmet coffee bars and tea housesThese outlets do not serve alcoholic beverages and thus may not strictly be considered a beverage outlet and could be classified as cafés. However, these outlets generally do not feature food as the main attraction and thus are perhaps more appropriately classified as a beverage outlet.
Gourmet coffee bars and tea houses are a recent and increasingly popular world¬wide trend in the food and beverage scene. They specialise in gourmet coffees and teas rather than alcoholic beverages.
Gourmet coffee bars:• feature a wide range of blends of gourmet coffee beans (e.g. Blue Mountain Kona, Java Arabica), infusions and teas served as hot or cold drinks.
• usually also offer ready made sandwiches, cakes, pastries, tarts and cookies.
• serve drinks and food using counter service only.
• generally have very modern decor with both air-conditioned and open-air (alfresco) seating.
• offer little or no entertainment other than background music and a range of newspaper and magazines as reading material.
• arc outlets where take-away orders form a large part of the business volume.
Tea houses:• often offer seating at low tables where customers seat on clean, polished wooden floors (Note : shoes may have to be taken off near the entrance).
• feature a wide range of Chinese black and green teas (e.g. Oolong, Long Jing) which are brewed at the table.
• serve tea by providing the tea pot, cups, hot water and tea leaves but allow customers to brew and serve the tea themselves.
• may offer snacks in the form of bite-sized traditional Chinese pastries like lotus seed buns.
• provide little in terms of entertainment except Chinese instrumental background music and light reading material or board games such as Chinese checkers.
• often try to 'educate' its customers on how tea is best brewed and appreciated.
In addition to traditional tea houses, there exists tea houses that serve 'bubble tea' or 'tea shakes' which are known as `pao-pao cha' in Mandarin. This concept originates from Taiwan and offers sweet, dessert-like drinks which use tea as a base for preparing a variety of mocktails (non-alcoholic cocktails).
1.6 Other food service operationsFood service operations outside of the hotel and restaurant context include the following :
• Airlines
• Cruise ships
• Luxury trains
• Institutions
• Home delivery
• Off-premise catering
1.6.1 AirlinesServing food and beverage on board an aircraft is very different from other forms of catering. Catering aboard a commercial flight is dependant on a centralised kitchen at each destination. In these centralised kitchen, menu items are prepared in a mass production assembly line to the specifications of each airline.
The food items are partially cooked, packaged, cooled, transported to and loaded onto the aircraft prior to a flight. The food is then re-heated on board the aircraft before being served to passengers.
Catering on board a commercial aircraft thus has rather unique characteristics :
• No cooking takes place on board yet there is a need to serve hot food hot.
• Space constraints in the cabin restrict the storage, re-heating and serving of food and beverages.
• Meals are served in surroundings that are designed for purposes of air travel rather than dining.
• Meals are served as part of an all-inclusive package when the ticket is purchased.
• A relatively limited choice of items on the menu. e.g. economy class passengers are only allowed to chooses between two different "main course" items in an otherwise set meal.
• As a distinction between each of its seating classifications, different menus are offered for First, Business / Executive and Economy class. Business class and First class passengers get to choose from a small and limited a la carte menu that ranges between 3 "LO 4 items for starters as well as main course items. These main course items may include caviar, roast beef an other more elaborate offerings.
While chinaware and crystal-ware is used in the first and business class, passengers in the economy class are served their refreshments ;n plastic cups and trays.
Service staff have very little to do in terms of suggestive selling and taking food or beverage orders but are generally very productive in the number of customers they actually serve.
On international flights, menu items served must take into consideration the wide range of ethnic, religious and cultural attitudes amongst passengers.
Advanced notification needed for special diets for diabetics (who must watch their sugar intake), vegetarians and those with medical conditions (low salt, low cholesterol).
1.6.2 Cruise shipsThe purpose of the vessel dictates the type of food and beverages items and service offered. If the purpose of the ship is to transport cargo, the items served would hardly be elaborate or of a very high quality.
Short pleasure cruises are available in the local the waters around the southern islands of Singapore. These boats range from modern catamarans to old restored Chinese junks. These boats cater to small groups of passengers who choose to hold private functions off shore. Some of these services also offer a daily 'cruise to no where' during lunch, afternoon tea and dinner respectively.
However, on board luxury passenger liners, elaborate menus and beverage selections may be expected. In addition, a Captain's table would be a feature for any important passengers on board.
Turnover in restaurants is needed as luxury liners can only accommodate half of the passengers at each seating. The type of food and beverages that may be served on board a cruise ship would therefore have the following features :
The menu needs to change constantly as journey could take up to 2 weeks otherwise passengers would get very bored eating the same food prolonged periods.
Price of passage would include complimentary food and beverages while on board.
Both a limited a la carte menu and daily buffet menus may be changed daily.
Nutritionally balanced meals need to be served for long journeys to prevent illnesses and to keep passengers healthy.
1.6.3 Luxury trainsLike ships, the types and quality of food and beverages for to passengers are dictated by the type of train service in question. Passenger trains that travel over long distances are more likely to make provisions for serving food and beverage for its passengers than freight trains. Luxury passenger trains are those, which provide travellers with luxurious, well appointed accommodations on board a train where upscale dining facilities exist.
Amongst some of the best known luxury train services are :
• Spain's Andalusia Express
• India's Maharaja on Wheels
• Russia's Trans-Siberian Express
• South Africa's Blue Train (between Johannesburg and Cape Town)
• The Eastern and Oriental Express (between from Singapore to Bangkok)
The most well known of these luxury train services is the Venice-Simplon Orient Express which travels between London to Venice, passing through some of the major cities in Europe.
Luxury train services usually have fairly elaborate food and beverage selections as their passengers are likely to be demanding and would have paid high prices for passage on board these train services. A trip on board the Eastern and Oriental from Singapore to Bangkok would cost S$2,300 per passenger for a one way trip.
Train carriages are rather narrow, limiting the size of food storage areas as well as the kitchen on board. This results in a rather limited menu selection and thus only a certain number of people can be served each meal period. Meal period on board these trains may thus be staggered to accommodate all passengers.
Luxury trains services would have the following features:
• Limited a la carte menu available.
• Set menus made up of items from the a la carte menu.
• Small but high quality wines and beverages usually offered complimentary to passengers.
• Less restricted in terms of cooking facilities than an aircraft as danger of fire is less crucial and thus allows the use of stoves, microwave, electrical ovens and deep-fryers to cook and heat food.
1.6.4 InstitutionsThe following institutions may have facilities for the preparation and service of food and beverages to their staff, students, patients or inmates.
• Factories and offices
• Schools, colleges and universities
• Prisons
• Military
• Hospitals, nursing homes and other health care institutions
• Factories and offices
Meals may or may not be part of the employees' benefits package. In some cases, the price of the meal may be subsidised and thus employees pay only a nominal amount.
Such food and beverage facilities may range from a cafeteria for rank and file staff to exclusive dining rooms for executives. Such dining facilities are offered because :
• travelling to and from the factory or office for a meal might be inconvenient and time consuming as the factory or office may be located away from urban centres.
• it may be part of the employees' benefits.
The following are some aspects of catering in factories and offices :
• The meal periods are fairly short as the employees usually have only an hour or less for their meals.
• The nutritional aspect is important as employees may be 'captive consumers' - those who have no choice but to eat in the same location on a daily basis.
• Menu planning can help eliminate boredom as well as to for allow nutritionally balanced meals to be prepared for the employees.
• Schools, colleges and universities
Students studying in boarding schools, colleges and universities may live in hostels or dormitories located on the grounds of these institutions while other may commute to the institution. Thus, a wide range of food and beverage facilities may exist in Schools, colleges and universities and can range from cafeterias or snack bars to dining rooms or halls.
The following are some aspects of catering in factories and offices :
• The cost of meals served in boarding schools may be included in the tuition fees in some cases.
• Menu planning is important to ensure that menu is varied enough to avoid boredom.
• Nutrition plays an important role as the students are captive consumers".
• Prisons
Prisons are institutions where the diners are truly 'captive consumers'. Though the quality of food may not be a prime issue, nutrition and boredom must still be considered.
The following are some aspects of catering in factories and offices:
• Menu planning is important to ensure that menu is varied enough to avoid boredom.
• Nutrition plays an important role.
• Military
Soldiers and other armed forces personnel living on military looses and camps must be fed. The large numbers involved often means mass catering and as a result the quality of food produced often something to be desired.
The following are some aspects of catering in the military :
• Menu planning is important to ensure that menu is varied enough to avoid boredom.
• Nutrition plays an important role.
• Hospitals, nursing homes and other health care institutions
Dietetics, as a hospital service, had it beginning at the time of the Crimean war (1854-1856). It was during those time that Florence Nightingale, pioneer of nursing care and dietetics, established a diet kitchen to provide clean, nourishing food for the ill and wounded. Until then, foods of questionable quality were poorly cooked in unsanitary conditions and served at irregular intervals.
The need for nutritionally balanced meals and special diets is a crucial to the care and recovery of patients as the young, the aged and the sick cannot plan their own meals.
The following become important considerations:
• In the case of hospitals and nursing homes, a dietician is usually on hand to plan meals for patients and in-mates.
• Dietary concerns would include special diets for medical conditions, ease of digestion, nutrition and providing a balanced meal.
• Patients due for surgery must be starved prior to the operation because of possible complications if food is vomited during surgery as a result of a reaction to being under anaesthesia
• Post-operation patients and orthopaedic patients (those who must be immobilised) are likely to be 'placed on drip', that is fed by the use of an intravenous solution of glucose and saline.
• In Asia, mothers in post-delivery convalescence are given specific food items that are traditionally recommended for convalescing mothers. Such social needs must thus also be catered for when catering for such patients.
• Older patients in the geriatric wards may require special meals - those
which are easily digested and soft as many may not be able to chew well.
• Children in paediatric wards must be provided food that is likely to be eaten and thus ice cream, cream soups and other 'child-friendly' dishes must be offered.
• Day care centres provide care for children and elderly persons who would otherwise be unsupervised, isolated and lonely. Nutrition is thus a prime concern in catering at these centres.
1.6.5 Home deliveryHome delivery has become an increasingly important aspect of catering as less households prepare their cwn meals. Though the option of eating out is a popular and convenient one, many would prefer to spend time with their family members over a meal at home. Home delivery thus combines the best of both worlds -convenience and the option of having a meal at home.
In home delivery the selection of menu items is crucial since not all food items are suitable as the time frame between production and consumption is quite different from a restaurant setting.
The home delivery business includes those services offered by restaurants as well as specialised home delivery services.
Restaurants may choose to provide a home delivery service as it allows them to reach wider market. With little additional costs, the restaurant is able to increase its sales. Examples of restaurants that provide home delivery include Pizza Hut, Kentucky Fried Chicken and McDonald's.
In these restaurants delivery is only provided if the location for delivery is within a certain radius of one of their restaurants. "This is necessary as there is no way to keep the food hot for long periods despite the use of insulated bags and containers to hold the food.
Specialised home delivery services are those which only provide home delivery services. Examples include : Domino's Pizza and Food Runners.
Domino's Pizza does not have restaurants. Instead they only provide pizza as a home delivery service. They are then able to provide pizza at a lower price as there are obvious savings made on labour as well as rentals.
Food Runners is a food delivery firm that does not even have a kitchen. Instead, it locates itself in the Holland Village area and taps on the area's existing restaurants. It makes a profit by charging a mark-up on the prices of menu items from these restaurants. Thus, such businesses actually serve two markets - the restaurants are able to increase their sales while the customers are able to avail themselves to the menu of their favourite restaurants.
1.6.6 Off-premise cateringOff premise catering allows a restaurant or hotel's banquet department to cater food and beverage to its customers away from its production and dining facilities.
The following are characteristics of off-premise catering:
• Higher operating costs due to need for manpower to transport and set up furniture and equipment.
• More than sufficient food, beverage and equipment must be supplied for the function as there are no more margins for error. Most caterers would tend to have these additional items on stand-by.
• Charges may be levied in addition to the meal or event if the customer requires manpower for service, e.g. bartenders.
• The menu selection is limited as cooking facilities are not likely to be available and the meal is most often a buffet arrangement.
• Only a limited bar serving beers, wines and a small selection of spirits and mixers is normally made available.
• In off-premise catering situations, disposable items instead of crockery and cutlery might be u
RARA National Park (106 sq km) 
